Paleolithic · Mesolithic · Neolithic · Chalcolithic | UPSC GS Paper I
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📋 Quick Navigation — Ancient History Series
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Prehistoric India covers the period before written records — we know this era only through archaeological evidence: stone tools, cave paintings, skeletal remains, and pottery. This era spans from roughly 5,00,000 BC to around 1000 BC depending on the region.
→ UPSC Prelims: 1–2 questions every year from this section — mostly on site identification, tools, and culture names.
→ Key skill: match the site → culture → tool → age correctly.
| Age | Period (approx) | Characteristic Tool | Lifestyle | Key Sites |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Paleolithic (Old Stone) | 5,00,000 – 10,000 BC | Crude hand axes, cleavers, choppers (unpolished) | Nomadic hunter-gatherer; no agriculture | Bhimbetka (MP), Hunsgi (Karnataka), Attirampakkam (TN) |
| Mesolithic (Middle Stone) | 9,000 – 4,000 BC | Microliths — tiny geometric blades | Semi-nomadic; start of animal domestication | Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhnaj (Gujarat), Bhimbetka (MP) |
| Neolithic (New Stone) | 6,000 – 1,000 BC | Polished stone tools; pottery begins | Settled farming villages; agriculture started | Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Burzahom (Kashmir), Chirand (Bihar) |
| Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone) | 3,000 – 700 BC | Copper + stone tools together | Villages with trade networks; painted pottery | Ahar (Rajasthan), Jorwe/Inamgaon (Maharashtra), Malwa (MP) |
People lived in caves and rock shelters. They had no concept of farming — survival meant following animals and foraging for fruits. No pottery, no metal, no written language.
→ Food: Wild animals (hunting) + berries, roots (gathering)
→ Shelter: Natural caves, open air camps near rivers
→ Tools: Rough, un-polished stone tools — hand axes were signature weapons
→ Fire: Evidence of fire use in later Paleolithic
| Phase | Tools | Sites | Note |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lower Paleolithic | Chopper, Cleaver, Hand axe | Sohan valley (NW India), Madras (Chennai) — called 'Madrasian Culture' | Oldest tools; crude and heavy |
| Middle Paleolithic | Flake tools (Levallois technique) | Nevasa (Maharashtra), Pushkar (Rajasthan) | Tools made from stone flakes, not cores |
| Upper Paleolithic | Blades, Burins, Scrapers | Bhimbetka (MP), Renigunta (AP) | Thinner, sharper tools; rock art begins |
⭐ Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) — Must Know
→ UNESCO World Heritage Site (2003)
→ Discovered by V.S. Wakankar in 1957–58
→ Contains rock shelters + cave paintings from Paleolithic to historic period
→ Paintings show hunting scenes, animals, community dances — shows early human artistic expression
→ One of the world's largest prehistoric cave painting sites
Mesolithic was a bridge period between the nomadic Paleolithic and the settled Neolithic. The most defining feature: Microliths — tiny crescent or triangle-shaped stone blades, often fitted into bone or wood handles as composite tools.
→ Tool hallmark: Microliths (geometric, tiny — 1–5 cm)
→ Lifestyle: Semi-nomadic; beginning of animal domestication (dog first)
→ No agriculture yet — still primarily hunting and gathering
→ Bagor (Rajasthan) — Largest Mesolithic site in India; evidence of animal domestication (~5,000 BC)
→ Langhnaj (Gujarat): Mixed cultural assemblage; skeletal remains found
→ Rock paintings at Bhimbetka are richest from Mesolithic period
This is where human history truly shifts. People started growing food instead of only finding it. The Neolithic Revolution (also called Agricultural Revolution) transformed humans from wanderers to settlers.
→ Tools: Polished stone tools (ground, not chipped)
→ Agriculture: Wheat + barley in NW India; Rice at Koldihwa (UP) — one of world's earliest (~7,000 BC)
→ Pottery: Handmade pottery appears; stored surplus food
→ Permanent villages: People built mud-brick huts; lived in communities
→ Domesticated animals: Cattle, sheep, goat
| Site | Location | Why Important |
|---|---|---|
| Mehrgarh | Balochistan (Pakistan) | Earliest Neolithic site in Indian subcontinent (~7,000 BC); wheat, barley, cotton found; evidence of early dentistry; transitional to Harappan culture |
| Burzahom | Kashmir | Unique pit-dwellings (people lived in pits for warmth); buried dogs with their masters; bone harpoons |
| Gufkral | Kashmir | 'Cave of the Potter'; evidence of wheat, lentils; stone-lined pits |
| Koldihwa | UP (Allahabad) | One of the world's oldest rice cultivation evidence (~7,000 BC) — disputed but significant |
| Chirand | Bihar | Evidence of antler tools; long habitation sequence |
| Paiyampalli | Tamil Nadu | Southern Neolithic; ash mounds — burnt cattle dung (Neolithic feature of S India) |
| Tekkalakota | Karnataka | Southern Neolithic with ash mounds; domesticated cattle, sheep |
⚠️ Common Exam Confusion: Mehrgarh is in Pakistan (Balochistan) but it is considered part of the Indian subcontinent's Neolithic history. Don't ignore it — UPSC frequently asks about it.
Chalcolithic = Chalco (copper) + Lithic (stone). Humans discovered copper — the first metal they used. Stone tools were still common but copper tools began to appear alongside them.
→ Pottery: Black-on-red painted pottery — most distinctive; geometric designs
→ Copper tools: Axes, chisels, pins, arrowheads
→ Agriculture: Well-established; surplus production; trade within and between villages
→ No writing in most Chalcolithic cultures
→ Burial: Dead buried in or near houses (with grave goods — pots, tools)
→ Houses: Rectangular or circular thatched mud huts
| Culture | Region | Key Sites | Notable Features |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ahar (Banas) | SE Rajasthan | Ahar, Gilund | Black-on-red pottery; copper smelting; stone blade tools disappeared |
| Kayatha | MP (Chambal valley) | Kayatha | Coarse red pottery with white painting; copper axes |
| Malwa | MP | Navdatoli, Eran | Malwa culture pottery (coarse); largest Chalcolithic settlement at Navdatoli |
| Jorwe | Maharashtra | Inamgaon, Daimabad | Distinctive Jorwe pottery; Inamgaon = largest site; evidence of town planning, public granary, craft specialization |
| Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) | UP, Haryana | Hastinapur, Atranjikhera | Associated with hoard culture; copper hoards found |
| Savaldha | Maharashtra | Savaldha | Evidence of rice, wheat cultivation; copper tools |
🧠 Mnemonic — Remember Chalcolithic Cultures: "A Kind Man John Saved Others"
Ahar → Kayatha → Malwa → Jorwe → Savaldha → OCP
⭐ Inamgaon (Jorwe Culture, Maharashtra) — UPSC Favourite
→ Largest Chalcolithic site in India
→ Evidence of public granary — community food storage
→ Planned settlement layout
→ Craft specialization — different workshops for different goods
→ Burial of dead under floors of houses with post-death offerings
✅ Must-Remember for UPSC Prelims
→ Bhimbetka = Rock shelters + cave paintings (Paleolithic to Medieval); discovered by V.S. Wakankar; UNESCO WHS
→ Bagor (Rajasthan) = Largest Mesolithic site; earliest animal domestication in India
→ Mehrgarh = Earliest Neolithic in Indian subcontinent (7000 BC); wheat, barley, dentistry
→ Burzahom (Kashmir) = Pit dwellings; dogs buried with masters
→ Koldihwa (UP) = One of world's earliest rice evidence
→ Inamgaon = Largest Chalcolithic site; public granary
→ Microliths = Characteristic tool of Mesolithic (NOT Neolithic or Paleolithic)
→ Polished stone tools = Neolithic Age hallmark
→ Black-on-red pottery = Chalcolithic
🎯 Previous Year Question Themes
→ Which site is known for pit-dwellings? (Burzahom)
→ What is the characteristic tool of the Mesolithic Age? (Microliths)
→ Bhimbetka is located in which state? (Madhya Pradesh)
→ Which is the earliest Neolithic site in the Indian subcontinent? (Mehrgarh)
→ Black-on-red painted pottery is associated with which prehistoric culture? (Chalcolithic)
📖 Continue Reading — Ancient History Series
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