The Vedic Age — Aryans, Vedas and the Birth of Indian Culture

→ Unit structure (small to large): Kula (family) → Grama (village) → Vis (clan) → Jana (tribe) → Rashtra (realm)
→ Rajan (king) was elected or hereditary but had limited powers; not an absolute ruler
→ Sabha = council of elders (select few); Samiti = general tribal assembly (broader); both checked king's power
→ Vidhata = oldest assembly; discussed war, spoils, religion
→ No taxation system — voluntary offerings (Bali) to king
→ Purohita (priest) and Senani (army chief) were key officials
→ Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna War) — mentioned in Rigveda; King Sudas of Bharata tribe defeated 10 kings on Ravi river

→ Cattle = primary wealth; wars fought over cattle (Gavishti = search for cows = battle!)
→ Cow was 'Aghnya' (not to be killed) — sacred from Rig Vedic times
→ Agriculture: Secondary; Yava (barley) was main crop; no rice or wheat yet
→ Trade: Barter system; Nishka (gold ornament) used as currency
→ Crafts: Carpentry (rathakara), weaving, leather work, metal smithing

→ Nature worship: Gods personified natural forces
→ Indra = god of storms/war; most important (250+ hymns in Rigveda); "Purandara" = destroyer of forts
→ Agni = fire god (200 hymns); intermediary between humans and gods
→ Varuna = cosmic order (Rita); god of sky and water; moral authority
→ Usha = dawn goddess (only important female deity in Rigveda)
→ Rudra = storm/destruction (later became Shiva)
→ Yajnas (fire sacrifices) — Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice for conquest), Rajasuya (coronation)
→ No idol worship, no temples, no pilgrimages in Rig Vedic period

Political shifts:

→ Eastward expansion — Aryans spread into Ganga plains (Aryavarta)
→ Tribal confederacies → organised kingdoms (Janapadas)
→ Kingship became hereditary; king's power grew; "Samrat" and "Sarvabhauma" titles appear
→ Sabha and Samiti lost importance; women excluded from them
→ Elaborate coronation rituals: Rajasuya (coronation), Vajapeya (chariot race + soma drinking), Ashvamedha (sovereignty claim over territory)

Social changes:

→ Varna system became rigid — birth-based (no longer occupation-based)
→ Four varnas: Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya (trader/farmer), Shudra (servant)
→ Women's status declined — barred from Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony); Manu's laws restricted women
→ Untouchability began to emerge — Chandala mentioned in Chandogya Upanishad
→ Ashrama system (four stages of life): Brahmacharya → Grihastha → Vanaprastha → Sannyasa

Religious changes:

→ Prajapati (creator god) replaced Indra as supreme deity
→ Vishnu and Rudra became increasingly important
→ Brahmin class gained enormous power through complex ritual monopoly
→ Upanishads — philosophical reaction against ritualism; concepts of Brahman (universal soul), Atman (individual soul), Karma, Moksha
→ Rise of heterodox movements — Buddhism and Jainism as reaction against Brahmin dominance

🧠 Mnemonics

4 Vedas order: "Rig Sam Yaju Athar" — Rigveda → Samaveda → Yajurveda → Atharvaveda
6 Vedangas: "Shika Kalp Vya Niruk Chhand Jyo" — Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhandas, Jyotisha

✅ Key Differences — Early Vedic vs Later Vedic

→ Varna: Occupation-based (Early Vedic) → Birth-based (Later Vedic)
→ Economy: Pastoral/cattle (Early) → Agriculture-dominant (Later)
→ Women: Higher status, educated (Early) → Declined, barred from rituals (Later)
→ Kingship: Tribal, checked by Sabha/Samiti (Early) → Hereditary, absolute (Later)
→ Main deity: Indra (Early) → Prajapati / Vishnu / Rudra (Later)
→ Texts: Only Rigveda (Early) → All 4 Vedas + Brahmanas + Upanishads (Later)

🎯 UPSC Previous Year Question Themes

→ Sabha and Samiti — what do they represent? (Democratic elements in Early Vedic polity)
→ Gayatri Mantra is found in which Veda? (Rigveda)
→ What is Vedanta? (Upanishads — philosophical end of the Vedas)
→ Purusha Sukta describes what? (Origin of four varnas from Brahma's cosmic body)
→ When was the concept of untouchability first seen? (Chandogya Upanishad — Later Vedic)