| Aspect | Details |
|---|---|
| Capital | Kanauj (present-day Uttar Pradesh) |
| Dynasty | Vardhana (Pushyabhuti) dynasty |
| Father | Prabhakaravardhana; Elder brother Rajyavardhana killed by Shashanka of Gauda (Bengal) |
| Defeat at Narmada | Defeated by Chalukya king Pulakesi II (~618 AD) — only major military setback; Harshacharita and Aihole inscription both mention this |
| Religion | Initially Shaiva; later became a devout Buddhist (Mahayana then Hinayana); organised Buddhist assemblies at Prayag every 5 years |
| Literary Works | Wrote 3 Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, Nagananda; patronised scholar Banabhatta (wrote Harshacharita — biography) |
| Administration | Central administration modelled on Guptas; king toured empire regularly; revenues used for charity; strong personal rule |
| Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) | Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India (630–645 AD); wrote Si-yu-ki (Record of Western Lands); described Harsha's generosity, Buddhist centres, Nalanda University |
| Quinquennial Assembly | Great religious assembly at Prayag (Allahabad) every 5 years; Harsha would distribute all treasury wealth to poor, monks, Brahmins |
| Death & Aftermath | Died 647 AD without a clear successor; empire collapsed; Arunasva usurped throne; Chinese ambassador Wang Hiuen-tse avenged by leading Nepali-Tibetan army |
Harshavardhana & Post-Gupta Kingdoms
600–750 AD | Vardhana Dynasty · Pallavas · Chalukyas · Rashtrakutas | UPSC GS Paper I
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📋 Ancient History Series
→ ← Gupta Empire | → Sangam Age →
Harshavardhana (606–647 AD) — Vardhana Dynasty
Nalanda University — Centre of Buddhist Learning
→ Founded: 5th century AD; thrived during Gupta and Harsha periods; destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (~1203 AD)
→ Location: Bihar (near Rajgir) — a UNESCO World Heritage Site today
→ Subjects: Buddhist philosophy, Vedas, logic, grammar, medicine, astronomy, fine arts — 8 main halls, 300 lecture rooms
→ Students: 10,000+ students from China, Korea, Japan, Tibet, Mongolia, Ceylon, SE Asia
→ Notable Masters: Nagarjuna, Asanga, Dharmapala, Shilabhadra (teacher of Xuanzang), Dharmakirti
→ Library: Called Dharmaganja ("Treasure of Truth") — had 9 million manuscripts in 3 multi-storied buildings
→ Xuanzang's account: Described Nalanda as having 10,000 monks; high standard of scholarship; entrance exam was very difficult
Pallava Dynasty (275–897 AD) — South India
| King | Period | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Simhavishnu | 560–590 AD | Founder of the great Pallava era; ancestor of Mahendravarman I; established dominance in Tamil Nadu |
| Mahendravarman I | 590–630 AD | Converted from Jainism to Shaivism under saint Appar; famous for rock-cut cave temples (Mandagapattu); wrote Sanskrit farce Mattavilasaprahasana; conflict with Pulakesi II of Chalukyas |
| Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla) | 630–668 AD | Greatest Pallava king; defeated and killed Chalukya Pulakesi II at Battle of Vatapi (642 AD); built Shore Temple and rathas at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram); harboured Chinese pilgrim |
| Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha) | 695–722 AD | Built Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram — finest example of Pallava structural architecture; sent maritime expeditions to China |
| Pallava Decline | 625–897 AD | Constant wars with Chalukyas (Badami), Pandyas and Gangas; Rashtrakutas attacked in north; finally defeated by Aditya I of Chola dynasty (~897 AD) |
Pallava Art Quick Revision:
→ Pallava Style (Dravidian Architecture): Rock-cut caves → Rathas → Structural temples
→ Mahabalipuram: Pancha Rathas (5 monolithic temples), Shore Temple, Arjuna's Penance (largest bas-relief in world)
→ Kanchipuram: Kailasanatha Temple, Vaikuntaperumal Temple — finest Pallava structural temples
→ Contribution: Developed the Dravidian (Vimana) style that later became standard for South Indian temple architecture
Chalukya Dynasties (543–757 AD / 973–1189 AD)
Chalukyas of Badami (Vatapi) — 543–757 AD
| King | Period | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Pulakesi I | 543–566 AD | Founder; performed Ashvamedha yajna; capital Vatapi (Badami); built Badami cave temples |
| Kirtivarman I | 566–597 AD | Expanded Chalukya power; defeated Kadambas, Mauryas of Konkana, Nalas; built cave temples at Badami |
| Pulakesi II | 610–642 AD | Greatest Chalukya king; defeated Harshavardhana at Narmada (~618 AD); sent embassy to Persia (Chosroes II); Aihole inscription (composed by poet Ravikirti) describes his conquests; court poet Kalidasa wrote about him; defeated by Pallava Narasimhavarman I; died in battle (~642 AD) |
| Vikramaditya I | 655–680 AD | Restored Chalukya power after Pallava sack; recovered capital Vatapi; patron of arts |
| Vikramaditya II | 733–746 AD | Thrice attacked Kanchipuram (Pallava capital); spared it from plunder respecting its sacredness; this is inscribed at Kailasanatha temple |
Chalukya Art:
→ Badami Cave Temples: 4 cave temples (3 Hindu + 1 Jain) — carved in red sandstone; beautiful sculptures of Vishnu in Anantashayana (reclining), Trivikrama, Narasimha forms
→ Aihole: 70+ temples — called "cradle of Indian temple architecture"; Durga Sangamesvara temple most famous
→ Pattadakal: UNESCO World Heritage Site; 10 temples — mix of Nagara and Dravida styles; Virupaksha temple modelled on Kailasanatha (Kanchipuram)
Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi — 624–1070 AD
→ Founded by Kubja Vishnuvardhana, brother of Pulakesi II; capital at Vengi (Andhra Pradesh)
→ Existed for ~500 years; Telugu literature patronised; merged with Chola empire through intermarriage (Kulottunga I — Chalukya-Chola)
→ Important bridge between Chalukyas and Cholas; Nannaya wrote Mahabharata in Telugu under their patronage
Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753–982 AD)
| King | Period | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Dantidurga | 753–756 AD | Founded Rashtrakuta dynasty by defeating Chalukya Kirtivarman II; performed Hiranyagarbha ceremony (to claim Kshatriya status) |
| Krishna I | 756–773 AD | Built the world-famous Kailasa Temple at Ellora (Cave 16) — largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world; carved from a single rock face, top to bottom |
| Dhruva (Dharavarsha) | 779–793 AD | First Rashtrakuta king to intervene in North India; defeated both Pratiharas and Palas; took 'tripartite struggle' to a new level |
| Govinda III | 793–814 AD | Greatest military successes; conquered almost all of India; even Gangas and Pallavas submitted; received embassies from Arab world |
| Amoghavarsha I | 814–878 AD | One of the greatest rulers; long peaceful reign; great patron of Kannada literature; Kavirajamarga — first Kannada literary treatise dedicated to him; converted to Jainism; donated a finger to Mahalakshmi |
| Indra III | 914–929 AD | Sacked Kanauj (then Pratihara capital); contemporary Arab traveller Al-Masudi called Rashtrakutas greatest empire in India |
Rashtrakuta Key Contributions:
→ Kailasa Temple, Ellora: Built by Krishna I; 164 ft long, 109 ft wide, 96 ft high; larger than Parthenon in Athens; dedicated to Shiva
→ Ellora Caves (1–34): Buddhist (1–12), Hindu (13–29), Jain (30–34) — all cut between 600–1000 AD; UNESCO World Heritage Site
→ Elephanta Caves: Island near Mumbai; magnificent Trimurti (Shiva in 3 aspects — Creator, Preserver, Destroyer) sculpture; likely Rashtrakuta
→ Kannada Literature: Pampa, Ponna, Ranna — "Three Gems of Kannada literature" — all flourished under Rashtrakutas; Kavirajamarga is oldest surviving Kannada literary text
Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th century AD)
Three Powers Fighting for Kanauj (North India's most prestigious city):
| Power | Region | Key Rulers |
|---|---|---|
| Palas | Bengal & Bihar | Gopala, Dharmapala, Devapala; Buddhist patrons; founded Vikramashila University |
| Pratiharas | Rajputana & Malwa | Nagabhata II, Mihira Bhoja; defeated Arab incursions; Gurjara origin; considered defenders of India from Arab invasions |
| Rashtrakutas | Deccan (Karnataka) | Dhruva, Govinda III, Indra III; militarily strongest; frequently sacked Kanauj |
Outcome: No single power could hold Kanauj permanently; exhausted all three; left India weakened when Mahmud of Ghazni began raids from 1000 AD onward
Chalukyas of Badami — Key Focus
→ Founded by: Pulakeshin I (~543 AD); capital: Vatapi / Badami (Karnataka)
→ Greatest Ruler — Pulakeshin II (610–642): Defeated Harsha at the Battle of Narmada river — Harsha could not cross south of the Narmada; controlled the entire Deccan; received Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang at his court; defeated by Pallava Narasimhavarman I who sacked Badami (642 AD)
→ Aihole Inscription: Composed by Ravikirti — court poet of Pulakeshin II; describes his victories in detail; Aihole is called the 'Cradle of Indian Temple Architecture'
→ Architecture: Built cave temples at Badami (rock-cut); structural temples at Pattadakal (UNESCO World Heritage Site) and Aihole; experimented with both Nagara (North Indian) and Dravidian (South Indian) styles; Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal modeled on Kailasanatha temple of Kanchipuram
Pallavas of Kanchipuram — Key Focus
→ Capital: Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu)
→ Greatest Rulers: Mahendravarman I (patron of music and art; wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana — Sanskrit comedy); Narasimhavarman I 'Mahamalla' (defeated Pulakeshin II; established Mamallapuram / Mahabalipuram; built the famous rathas and Shore Temple)
→ Architecture: Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram) — UNESCO World Heritage Site; Pancha Rathas (five monolithic temples — Dharmaraja, Arjuna, Bhima, Nakula-Sahadeva, Draupadi) at Mahabalipuram; cave temples at Undavalli
→ Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram): Earliest structural temple of South India; built by Narasimhavarman II (Rajasimha)
→ Script Legacy: Pallava script evolved into many Southeast Asian scripts — Grantha script gave rise to Thai, Khmer, Javanese and other scripts
Quick Revision — UPSC Focus Points
→ Harsha's Defeat: Only Pulakesi II (Chalukya) defeated Harsha; written in Aihole inscription (by Ravikirti)
→ Xuanzang: Visited India 630–645 AD; described Harsha's court; wrote "Si-yu-ki"; studied at Nalanda
→ Kailasa Temple: Built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I at Ellora; largest monolithic structure
→ Shore Temple: Built by Pallava Narasimhavarman I at Mahabalipuram; earliest structural shore temple
→ Aihole Inscription: Written by Ravikirti; praises Pulakesi II; refers to Kalidasa & Bharavi as literary models
→ Ganga-Jamuni Tehzeeb: Cultural synthesis visible in Ellora where Buddhist, Hindu, Jain caves coexist
→ Banabhatta: Court poet of Harsha; wrote Harshacharita (biography of Harsha) and Kadambari (Sanskrit prose novel)
→ Amoghavarsha: Wrote Kavirajamarga (oldest Kannada literary treatise); great patron of Jainism
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