Sangam Age — South India's Classical Period
Three Tamil Kingdoms · Sangam Literature · Trade with Rome | UPSC GS Paper I
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What Was the Sangam Age?
The Sangam Age refers to the period (~300 BC – 300 AD) when Tamil literature was compiled in academic assemblies called Sangams. This is the earliest known period of South Indian history based on literary evidence (not archaeological). Three major Tamil kingdoms — Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas — dominated the southern peninsula.
The term "Sangam" means an assembly or academy of Tamil poets. Sangam literature is one of the oldest secular literary traditions in the world and a goldmine of social history for UPSC.
The Three Tamil Kingdoms
| Kingdom | Capital | Emblem | Region | Key Notes |
|---|
| Cheras | Vanji (Karur) | Bow and Arrow | Kerala + western Tamil Nadu | Controlled trade with Rome via Malabar coast; spice trade (pepper); port: Musiri (Muciri) |
| Cholas | Uraiyur (later Kaveripattinam) | Tiger | Eastern Tamil Nadu (Kaveri delta) | Rice-growing; port: Kaveripattinam (Poompuhar); great maritime tradition; cotton textiles |
| Pandyas | Madurai | Carp/Fish | Southernmost Tamil Nadu + parts of Kerala | Pearl fishing; traded with Romans; Megasthenes mentioned Pandya kingdom; capital Madurai = city of poets |
The Three Sangams
→ First Sangam: Held at Madurai (legendary); no literature survives; presided by sage Agastya (legendary)
→ Second Sangam: Held at Kapadapuram (legendary); only Tolkappiyam survives from this period
→ Third Sangam: Held at Madurai; produced most surviving Sangam literature — Ettutogai, Pattupattu, Pathinenkilkanakku (18 minor works), etc.
→ Note: The first two Sangams are largely legendary; historians accept the third Sangam as historical
Key Sangam Literary Works
| Text | Author | Significance |
|---|
| Tolkappiyam | Tolkappiyar | Oldest Tamil grammar; covers phonology, grammar, poetics; from Second Sangam period; earliest surviving Tamil text |
| Tirukkural | Thiruvalluvar | Tamil "Bible"; 1330 couplets on Dharma (Aram), Wealth (Porul), Love (Inbam); universal ethics; translated into 40+ languages; Thiruvalluvar Day = Jan 15 |
| Silappatikaram | Ilango Adigal (Chera prince) | Epic novel; story of Kovalan and Kannagi; portrays all three kingdoms; most famous Sangam epic |
| Manimekalai | Sattanar | Sequel to Silappatikaram; Buddhist content; story of Kovalan's daughter |
| Purananuru | Anthology (multiple poets) | 400 poems; war, heroism, death, kings of all three kingdoms; invaluable historical source |
| Akananuru | Anthology | 400 love poems; Tinai system described |
| Pattupattu | Anthology | Ten Eclogues; descriptions of nature, kings, society |
Tinai System — Tamil Ecological Zones
The Tinai system divided Tamil land into 5 eco-zones, each associated with specific themes in poetry:
| Tinai Zone | Landscape | Tree/Flower | Theme |
|---|
| Kurinji | Hills (mountains) | Kurinji flower | Lover's union (meeting) |
| Mullai | Forests/pastures | Mullai (jasmine) | Waiting; patient love |
| Marutam | Farmlands (river valley) | Marutam tree | Infidelity; quarrel |
| Neytal | Seacoast | Neytal (blue water lily) | Longing; separation |
| Palai | Wasteland/desert | Palai tree | Separation; eloping |
Trade with Rome and the Mediterranean
→ Sangam Tamil kingdoms had active sea trade with Rome, Greece, and Arabia
→ Exported: pepper, textiles, cotton, pearls, ivory, teak
→ Imported: Gold, wine, amphorae (Roman pottery)
→ Arikamedu (near Pondicherry) — excavated by Sir Mortimer Wheeler; found Roman amphorae, lamps, Arretine pottery (Indo-Roman trading post)
→ Roman emperor Augustus received embassies from South Indian kings (confirmed by Roman historian Strabo)
→ Pepper was so highly valued in Rome that Vandal king Alaric demanded 3000 lbs of pepper as ransom when sacking Rome (410 AD)
→ Musiri (Muchiri) and Kaveripattinam were major ports; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes these ports
Sangam Society & Economy
→ Social divisions: Not strictly based on varna; more occupational — warriors (Maravar), farmers (Vellalar), traders/fishers, artisans
→ Women's status: Higher than later periods; women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchinarkkiniyar wrote major works; love marriages (Gandharva) existed
→ Heroic culture: Great emphasis on bravery, loyalty, generosity (Vagai) — eulogized in Purananuru
→ Hero stones (Nadukal): Erected to commemorate fallen warriors — evidence in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
→ Sati (Karpu) mentioned in some texts for warrior widows
→ Religion: Worship of Murugan (Skanda/Kartikeya) most prominent; also Mayon (Vishnu), Seyon, Indra; Vedic religion coexisted
Administration & Polity
→ Hereditary monarchy: King was called Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Irai
→ King's court had 5 assemblies collectively known as Aivagai-manram
→ Ministers: Amaicchar; Military commanders: Senapati; Envoys: Thuthar
→ Revenue: Land tax (Irai); tolls and customs (Ulgu); tributes from conquered kings (Tirai)
→ Army: Infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephants — fourfold army called Chaturangini
→ Justice: King was the supreme judge; punishments were harsh; highway robbery was severely punished
→ Vel/Velir: Lesser chieftains under the three major kingdoms; played an important role in local governance
Key Rulers of Sangam Period
| Ruler | Dynasty | Key Achievements & Facts |
|---|
| Karikala Chola | Chola | Built Kallanai (Grand Anicut) dam on Kaveri river — one of oldest irrigation structures still in use; expanded Chola power; great warrior; patronized arts |
| Nedunjeliyan Pandya | Pandya | "The Great One with the Madurai court"; patron of the Third Sangam assembly; Silappatikaram trial scene involves his kingdom |
| Senguttuvan Chera (Red Chera) | Chera | Most famous Chera king; expedition to the Himalayas to get stone for Pattini Kannagi temple; subject of Silappatikaram |
| Elara Chola | Chola | Tamil Chola prince who ruled Sri Lanka for 44 years; known for justice; mentioned in Pali chronicle Mahavamsa |
| Peruvaluti (Nedunjeliyan II) | Pandya | Pandya king who killed Kovalan in Silappatikaram; described as just but made a fatal error |
Decline of Sangam Age
→ After the 3rd century AD, the three Sangam kingdoms declined
→ Kalabhras invaded and overthrew traditional Tamil kingdoms — this period is called the "Kalabhra interregnum" or "Dark Age" of Tamil Nadu (3rd–6th century)
→ Very little literary evidence survives from the Kalabhra period
→ Revival came with the Pallavas (Kanchipuram) and later the Pandyas re-emerged
→ Sangam age was rediscovered by modern scholars — U.V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855–1942), called "Tamil Thatha" (grandfather of Tamil), recovered lost Sangam texts from palm leaf manuscripts
Quick Revision
✅ Must-Know for Prelims
→ Three Tamil kingdoms: Cheras (Vanji), Cholas (Uraiyur), Pandyas (Madurai)
→ Oldest Tamil grammar text: Tolkappiyam by Tolkappiyar
→ Tirukkural: Thiruvalluvar; 1330 couplets; 3 books (Aram, Porul, Inbam)
→ Silappatikaram: Ilango Adigal; epic of Kovalan-Kannagi
→ Manimekalai: Sattanar; Buddhist-themed sequel
→ Sangam poets assembly: Madurai (Third Sangam)
→ Arikamedu excavated by: Mortimer Wheeler; Roman pottery found
→ 5 Tinai zones: Kurinji, Mullai, Marutam, Neytal, Palai
→ Hero stones: Nadukal
→ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea — Greek text describing Indian ports including Tamil ones
🧠 Mnemonic for Three Kingdoms + Capitals
"Chera Vanji Bow, Chola Uraiyur Tiger, Pandya Madurai Fish"
(Kingdom → Capital → Emblem)
Tinai zones: "Kur Mul Mar Ney Pal" = Kurinji–Mullai–Marutam–Neytal–Palai
