| Organisation / Movement | Founded | Founder & Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Brahmo Sabha / Brahmo Samaj | 1828 (Sabha), 1843 (Samaj) | Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833) — 'Father of Modern India' / 'Morning Star of Indian Renaissance'; fought against sati, child marriage, caste system; advocated widow remarriage, women's education; English education; deist monotheism; Tukaram Tatya and Debendranath Tagore later; Keshab Chandra Sen split into Brahmo Samaj of India (1866) and Adi Brahmo Samaj; worked with Bentinck for Sati Abolition Act 1829 |
| Prarthana Samaj | 1867, Bombay | Atmaram Pandurang and Mahadev Govind Ranade; 'Prayer Society'; influenced by Brahmo Samaj; worked against caste discrimination; widow remarriage; women's education; Justice Ranade's liberal approach |
| Arya Samaj | 1875, Bombay (then Lahore) | Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883); slogan: 'Go Back to the Vedas'; monotheism based on Vedas only; rejected idol worship, caste by birth, child marriage; accepted women for education; Shuddhi (reconversion) movement; 'Back to the Vedas, not to the West'; wrote Satyarth Prakash (Truth Light); founded DAV schools and colleges |
| Ramakrishna Mission | 1897, Belur Math, West Bengal | Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902) — disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa; founded after his guru's death; activities: hospitals, schools, flood relief, famine relief in India; spread Vedanta worldwide; Chicago Parliament of Religions speech (1893): 'Sister and Brothers of America'; key works: 'Karma Yoga', 'Raja Yoga', 'Jnana Yoga', 'Bhakti Yoga'; Ramakrishna Paramahamsa (1836–86) = devotee of Kali; mystic; 'all religions lead to same God' |
| Theosophical Society | 1875 in New York; India HQ 1882 Adyar, Chennai | H.P. Blavatsky (Russian) and Colonel H.S. Olcott (American) — founded; Annie Besant (1847–1933) later became its most prominent leader in India; believed in universal brotherhood; revival of ancient religions especially Hinduism and Buddhism; deeply influenced Indian cultural pride; Annie Besant — wrote about India's spiritual greatness; founded Banaras Hindu University with Madan Mohan Malaviya (1916); later entered Indian politics |
| Dev Samaj | 1887, Lahore | Shiv Narayan Agnihotri; socio-religious reform; strict ethical code; service to poor |
| Satyashodhak Samaj | 1873, Pune | Jyotirao Phule (Mahatma Phule, 1827–1890); Maharashtra; against Brahminical dominance; worked for Dalits and women; wife Savitribai Phule — first female teacher in India; wrote Gulamgiri (Slavery); mentor to Ambedkar's movement |
Social & Religious Reform Movements — 19th Century India
1828–1900 AD | Hindu, Muslim, Parsi, Sikh Reforms | Precursors of Nationalism | UPSC GS Paper I
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📌 Why These Movements Arose: Western education and Enlightenment ideas; Christian missionaries highlighting social evils; British administration creating stable environment; contact with progressive ideas through printing press; educated Indians became aware of social inequalities.
Hindu Reform Movements
Muslim Reform Movements
| Movement | Founded | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Wahabi Movement | 1820s | Syed Ahmad Barelvi and Shah Ismail; inspired by Abd-al-Wahhab's puritanical reform in Arabia; return to pure unspoilt Islam; opposed to Sufi practices; also anti-British; Syed Ahmad Barelvi declared jihad against Sikhs in Northwest; killed at Battle of Balakot 1831 (NWFP — today Pakistan); movement continued; British classified it as seditious; some branches were anti-British |
| Aligarh Movement | 1875 | Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898); founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh (1875) — became Aligarh Muslim University (1920); promoted modern English education among Muslims; believed in loyalty to British; advocated separate Muslim interests; rational/scientific outlook; fought against Hindu-Muslim riots; wrote that Hindus and Muslims were 'two nations' — seeds of Two-Nation Theory |
| Deoband Movement | 1867 | Darul Uloom Deoband seminary founded in Saharanpur (UP); Muhammad Qasim Nanautawi; anti-British; Islamic revivalism; orthodox Sunni; produced scholars; strongly opposed Wahabi extremism but also opposed Westernization; gave fatwas against British goods (swadeshi support) |
| Ahmadiyya Movement | 1889 | Mirza Ghulam Ahmad; Qadian (Punjab); claimed to be a promised Messiah; reformed Islam without jihad; controversial — mainstream Muslims consider adherents non-Muslims |
Parsi, Sikh & Other Reforms
Parsi Reform:
→ Rahanumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association): 1851, Bombay; Naoroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee; purification of Zoroastrianism; women's education; 'Rast Goftar' (the truth-teller) newspaper by Dadabhai Naoroji
Sikh Reform:
→ Singh Sabha Movement: 1873, Amritsar (then Lahore 1879); purify Sikhism from Hindu rituals; return to Granth Sahib; Gurmukhi script promoted; Khalsa College Amritsar founded
→ Akali Movement / Akali Dal: 1920; to take control of Sikh shrines (gurdwaras) from mahants (corrupt hereditary managers); Gurdwara Reform Act 1925 — SGPC (Shiromani Gurdwara Prabhandak Committee) established; non-violent methods, parallel to Gandhian Non-Cooperation
Lower Caste / Dalit Movements:
→ Jyotirao Phule: Maharashtra; Satyashodhak Samaj (1873); educated wife Savitribai Phule — first female teacher India; 'Gulamgiri' (about Dalit slavery)
→ Narayan Guru: Kerala (1856–1928); fought against untouchability and caste in Kerala; 'One God, One Cast, One Religion for Man'; built temples open to all castes (Aruvippuram Temple, 1888); SNDP Yogam (1903)
→ E.V. Ramasamy Periyar: Tamil Nadu; Self-Respect Movement; Justice Party; 'Dravidian' identity politics; strongly anti-Brahmin
Key Social Legislation
| Act | Year | Details |
|---|---|---|
| Sati Abolition Act | 1829 (Bengal Regulation XVII) | Lord Bentinck; Ram Mohan Roy's campaign; declared sati (widow self-immolation) illegal and punishable |
| Hindu Widows Remarriage Act | 1856 | Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's campaign; made widow remarriage legal for Hindus; Vidyasagar was then principal of Sanskrit College Calcutta |
| Female Infanticide Prevention Act | 1870 | Lord Mayo; made female infanticide a criminal offense |
| Age of Consent Act | 1891 | Raised minimum age of consent for marriage from 10 to 12 years; sparked controversy — Bal Gangadhar Tilak opposed government intervention in social matters |
| Sharda Act (Child Marriage Restraint Act) | 1929 | Rai Sahib Harbilas Sarda; minimum marriage age 14 for girls, 18 for boys; passed after long campaign by reformers and women's organisations; named after its sponsor |
Women's Reform — Key Individuals
| Reformer | Key Contributions |
|---|---|
| Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar | Sanskrit scholar; Chief campaigner for Widow Remarriage Act 1856; ran night schools; pioneered women's education in Bengal; Bethune School |
| Pandita Ramabai | Christian convert; founded Sharada Sadan (1889) for widows at Pune; Arya Mahila Samaj; wrote 'The High-Caste Hindu Woman'; first Indian woman to address British Parliament |
| Tarabai Shinde | Wrote 'Stri Purush Tulana' (Comparison of Women and Men, 1882) — one of first feminist texts in India |
| Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain | Muslim feminist from Bengal; founded Sakhawat Memorial School (1911); wrote 'Sultana's Dream' (feminist utopian fiction); campaigned against purdah |
| Savitribai Phule | First female teacher in India (1848); worked with husband Jyotirao; started schools for girls and Dalits; plague relief work |
Important Press & Educational Institutions
| Institution / Publication | Key Facts |
|---|---|
| Sambad Kaumudi (1821) | Raja Ram Mohan Roy; first Bengali weekly opposing sati |
| Darpan | Bal Shastri Jambhekar; first Marathi newspaper |
| Amrita Bazar Patrika | Important nationalist newspaper; Bengal |
| Rast Goftar (Truth-teller) | Dadabhai Naoroji; Parsi reform |
| Hindu College (1817) | Founded by Ram Mohan Roy, David Hare; English education |
| Scottish Church College | Alexander Duff; Christian missionary education |
| Aligarh Movement | Sir Syed's MAO College |
| Banaras Hindu University (1916) | Malaviya + Annie Besant |
Impact of Reform Movements
→ Pioneered modern Indian renaissance
→ Created awareness about social evils
→ Promoted women's education and rights
→ Laid foundation for Indian nationalism
→ Developed regional languages and literature
→ Created debate between reformists and revivalists
→ Some movements fostered communalism (Two-Nation Theory seeds)
Quick Revision — UPSC Key Points
→ 'Father of Modern India': Raja Ram Mohan Roy
→ 'Father of Indian Nationalism': Surendranath Banerjee / Bal Gangadhar Tilak (contested)
→ Sati abolished: 1829 (Bentinck); campaign by Ram Mohan Roy
→ Widow Remarriage Act: 1856; Vidyasagar's work
→ 'Go back to the Vedas': Dayananda Saraswati (Arya Samaj)
→ Vivekananda at Chicago: 1893 Parliament of World Religions
→ Aligarh Muslim University: Founded 1875 (MAO College); then AMU 1920
→ Annie Besant: Theosophical Society president; founded BHU with Malaviya; Indian Home Rule League (1916)
→ First female teacher in India: Savitribai Phule (wife of Jyotirao Phule)
→ Narayan Guru: Aruvippuram Temple (1888) — first temple opened to all castes in Kerala
→ Sharda Act: 1929 — child marriage restraint
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