| Type of Cause | Details |
|---|---|
| Political Causes | Doctrine of Lapse (Lord Dalhousie, 1848–56) — annexed states without natural heirs: Satara (1848), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854), Awadh (1856) on grounds of 'misgovernment'; Nana Saheb (adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II) denied pension; Rani Lakshmibai denied right to adopt heir; massive resentment among rulers and nobles |
| Economic Causes | Ruination of artisans and weavers by cheap British machine-made goods; heavy land taxes (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari); commercialisation of agriculture; famines; money-lenders exploiting peasants after British revenue laws; drain of wealth to Britain |
| Military Causes | Indian sepoys received lower pay and poorer conditions than British soldiers; General Service Enlistment Act (1856) required sepoys to serve overseas (crossing seas = loss of caste for Hindus); promotion practically impossible for Indians; officers often disrespected sepoys |
| Social & Religious Causes | Interference with caste and religion: missionary activities supported by British; 1850 Religious Disabilities Act (convert could inherit property); prohibition of practices: sati (1829), infanticide; widows encouraged to remarry (1856); Christian missionaries active; fear of forced conversion; introduction of female education seen as social disruption; sepoys' traditional privileges reduced |
| Immediate Cause | Enfield P-53 rifle introduced in 1856; cartridge greased with cow and pig fat (tallow); cartridge had to be bitten before inserting in rifle — caused both Hindus (cow sacred) and Muslims (pig impure) to refuse; confirmed fears of religious conversion; triggered the revolt |
Revolt of 1857 — First War of Independence
May 10, 1857 – June 1858 | Sepoy Mutiny or First War of Independence? | UPSC GS Paper I
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📋 Interpretations of 1857: British historians (like Lawrence, John Seeley) — "Sepoy Mutiny" or "Sepoy Revolt" (just a military unrest); Indian nationalists (V.D. Savarkar in "1857 — The Indian War of Independence") — "First War of Independence"; Marxist historians — "feudal reaction"; R.C. Majumdar — "neither first nor national nor war of independence"
Causes of the Revolt
Major Leaders & Centres
| Leader | Centre / Role | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Mangal Pandey | Barrackpore (Bengal); 34th Infantry | First to openly rebel; shot British adjutant on March 29, 1857; hanged April 8, 1857; became a symbol; revolt at Meerut on May 10 was the real beginning |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar II | Delhi; titular Mughal Emperor | Last Mughal emperor; rebels named him their leader; symbolic head; old man in his 80s; captured after Delhi fell (Sep 1857); tried and exiled to Rangoon (Burma) where he died 1862; wrote Urdu poetry ('Ghalib' was contemporary) |
| Rani Lakshmibai | Jhansi (Central India) | Queen of Jhansi; fought brilliantly against British; died in battle near Gwalior (June 18, 1858) fighting Hugh Rose's forces; most iconic female warrior of 1857; Hugh Rose himself praised her courage |
| Nana Saheb (Dhondu Pant) | Kanpur (Cawnpore) | Adopted son of last Peshwa Baji Rao II; denied pension by British; led massive revolt in Kanpur; massacre of British at Satichaura Ghat; defeated by Havelock; disappeared after revolt — whereabouts unknown; Tantia Tope was his general |
| Tantia Tope (Ramachandra Panduranga) | Kanpur, Central India | Nana Saheb's commander; most effective guerrilla fighter of the revolt; continued fighting until 1859 using hit-and-run tactics; finally betrayed by Man Singh (a Nawab), captured, tried, and hanged at Shivpuri (April 1859) |
| Begum Hazrat Mahal | Lucknow (Awadh) | Wife of Nawab of Awadh (Wajid Ali Shah who was deposed); led Lucknow revolt; fought from Lucknow Residency area; eventually fled to Nepal; Lucknow Residency siege lasted 87 days (famous British siege) |
| Kunwar Singh | Bihar (Jagdishpur) | 70+ year old Rajput zamindar; brilliant guerrilla commander; defeated British several times; died from wounds a few days after one final victory; his brother Babu Amar Singh continued |
| Khan Bahadur Khan | Bareilly (UP) | Rohilla chieftain; claimed kinship with Mughal emperor; fierce fighter at Bareilly; captured and hanged |
Key Events Timeline
Jan 1857 → New Enfield cartridges arrive; rumours spread about greased cartridges
Mar 29, 1857 → Mangal Pandey fires at British adjutant at Barrackpore; hanged Apr 8
May 10, 1857 → Meerut: sepoys of 3rd Cavalry break open jail, rebel openly; marched to Delhi
May 11, 1857 → Delhi captured by rebels; Bahadur Shah II proclaimed Emperor
June 1857 → Revolt spreads to Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, Allahabad, Bihar
June 27, 1857 → Kanpur massacre (Satichaura Ghat) — British surrendered, then killed
July–Nov 1857 → British reinforcements arrive; systematic reconquest begins
Sep 1857 → Delhi recaptured; Bahadur Shah captured; sent to Rangoon
Nov 1857 → Lucknow Residency relieved by Colin Campbell
Mar 1858 → Jhansi falls to Hugh Rose; Rani Lakshmibai escapes to Gwalior
Jun 18, 1858 → Rani Lakshmibai dies in battle near Gwalior
Apr 1859 → Tantia Tope captured and hanged; last remnant resistance crushed
Nov 1858 → Government of India Act 1858 — Company rule ends; Crown rule begins; Queen Victoria's Proclamation
Why Revolt Failed & Aftermath
Reasons for Failure
→ Limited Spread: Large parts of India did not participate — Madras, Bombay, Bengal civilians, Sind, Punjab, Rajputana chiefs (some actively helped British)
→ No Unified Leadership: Each centre had separate leader; no coordination; no common ideology
→ Military Disadvantage: British had superior weapons (Enfield rifle), communication (telegraph helped coordinate rapid response), reinforcements via Suez Canal after 1858
→ British Support: Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans and many Indian princes sided with British; Gorkha soldiers especially instrumental in crushing revolt
→ No Middle Class Support: Educated Indians (including INC founders later) did not join; felt revolt was feudal/backward-looking
Consequences & Aftermath
→ Government of India Act 1858: East India Company's rule ended; British Crown took direct control; Secretary of State for India (in British cabinet) replaced Board of Control; Viceroy replaced Governor-General; Queen Victoria's Proclamation (Nov 1858) — announced respect for Indian traditions, no further annexations, amnesty for rebels (except those guilty of murder)
→ Army Reorganisation: British officers increased; proportion of Indians reduced; Indians barred from artillery units; 'martial races' theory promoted (Sikhs, Gurkhas, Pathans preferred over Bengalis/Marathas)
→ Divide & Rule: British deliberately sharpened Hindu-Muslim divisions (which were relatively muted during 1857 — Hindus and Muslims fought together)
→ End of Mughal Rule: Last Mughal Bahadur Shah II exiled; ended 300+ year Mughal dynasty
→ Inspiration: Despite failure, 1857 remained a powerful symbol for future freedom fighters; inspired Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lal-Bal-Pal, INA and others
Spread of the Revolt — Region-wise Analysis
| Region / Centre | Date | Leader(s) | Key Events & British Response |
|---|---|---|---|
| Delhi | May 11, 1857 | Bakht Khan (military commander); Bahadur Shah Zafar (symbolic head) | Rebels from Meerut seized Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah emperor; Bakht Khan led the defence; British besieged Delhi for months; John Nicholson led the recapture in September 1857 (Nicholson died of wounds); Bahadur Shah captured, tried, exiled to Rangoon |
| Lucknow | June 1857 | Begum Hazrat Mahal; her son Birjis Qadr proclaimed as Nawab | Siege of the British Residency lasted 87 days; Henry Lawrence (Chief Commissioner) killed in early days of siege; first relief by Havelock and Outram failed to evacuate; Colin Campbell finally relieved the Residency in November 1857; Begum Hazrat Mahal fled to Nepal after Lucknow fell in March 1858 |
| Kanpur (Cawnpore) | June 1857 | Nana Saheb (Dhondu Pant); Tantia Tope (military commander) | Nana Saheb led the revolt and besieged British garrison; Satichaura Ghat massacre (June 27) — British surrendered but were attacked while boarding boats; Bibighar massacre — killing of British women and children; British retaliation was brutal — Havelock and Neill recaptured Kanpur; Nana Saheb disappeared; Tantia Tope continued guerrilla warfare |
| Jhansi | June 1857 | Rani Lakshmibai | Rani initially took control after British officers were killed; Hugh Rose launched campaign against Jhansi in March 1858; fierce three-week siege; Rani escaped to Gwalior with Tantia Tope; final battle at Gwalior — Rani Lakshmibai died fighting on June 18, 1858; Hugh Rose called her 'the bravest and best of the rebel leaders' |
| Bihar (Jagdishpur) | August 1857 | Kunwar Singh (Rajput zamindar, aged 70+) | Waged brilliant guerrilla warfare despite advanced age; defeated British forces multiple times; moved across Bihar and UP; in his last battle, when hit in the wrist, he cut off his own hand and offered it to the Ganges; died April 26, 1858; brother Babu Amar Singh continued resistance |
| Bareilly | May 1857 | Khan Bahadur Khan (Rohilla chieftain) | Claimed descent from Hafiz Rahmat Khan of Rohilkhand; declared himself Nawab Nazim; administered Bareilly independently; captured in 1859 and hanged |
| Faizabad | June 1857 | Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah | Known as the 'Lighthouse of Rebellion' (Danka Shah); one of the most dynamic leaders; fought fiercely at Lucknow and surrounding areas; killed by treachery — Raja of Pawayan shot him for British reward in June 1858 |
| Arrah | July–August 1857 | Kunwar Singh (coordinated from here) | British civilians and Sikh soldiers held a small house against rebel siege; one of the earliest centres of revolt in Bihar; relief force initially defeated; eventually relieved by Major Vincent Eyre |
British Policies that Led to 1857
| Policy / Act | Introduced By | Year | Details & Impact |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subsidiary Alliance System | Lord Wellesley | 1798 | Indian rulers had to maintain British troops at their own expense; could not maintain independent armies; could not enter into alliances with other powers; lost sovereignty while nominally remaining rulers — created deep resentment among Indian princes |
| Doctrine of Lapse | Lord Dalhousie | 1848–56 | If a ruler died without a natural male heir, the state was annexed; states annexed: Satara (1848), Jaitpur (1849), Sambalpur (1849), Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853), Nagpur (1854); denied the long-standing Indian tradition of adopting heirs; directly caused Rani Lakshmibai and Nana Saheb to rebel |
| Annexation of Awadh | Lord Dalhousie | 1856 | Annexed on grounds of 'misgovernance'; Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was deposed and sent to Calcutta; deeply unpopular — Awadh was the homeland of a large number of Company sepoys; created widespread anger among both civilians and soldiers; directly led to Lucknow becoming a major centre of revolt |
| General Service Enlistment Act | Lord Canning | 1856 | Required sepoys to serve overseas (across the seas); crossing the sea meant loss of caste for high-caste Hindu soldiers; broke the earlier promise that sepoys would only serve within India; combined with cartridge controversy to create explosive military discontent |
| Revenue Settlements | Various Governors-General | 1793–1850s | Permanent Settlement (1793, Lord Cornwallis) — fixed revenue for zamindars in Bengal; Ryotwari (1820, Thomas Munro) — direct taxation of peasants in Madras and Bombay; Mahalwari (1833, Lord William Bentinck) — village-level assessment in NW Provinces; all systems extracted maximum revenue; ruined peasants through over-assessment; created landless labourers; money-lenders gained power |
| De-industrialization | British trade policy | 1800s onwards | One-way free trade: British goods entered India duty-free while Indian goods faced heavy tariffs in Britain; destroyed Indian handicraft industries — especially cotton textiles (Dhaka muslin, Bengal cotton); weavers and artisans lost livelihoods; India reduced from manufacturer to raw material supplier; created massive unemployment and poverty |
Who Called It What? — Interpretations of 1857
| Historian / Figure | Interpretation / Term Used | Context & Notes |
|---|---|---|
| British Historians (Lawrence & Seeley, John Seeley) | "Sepoy Mutiny" | Official British view — dismissed it as a mere military mutiny by disgruntled soldiers; denied it any national or political character; this term dominated British historiography for decades |
| V.D. Savarkar | "First War of Independence" | Published his book '1857: The Indian War of Independence' in 1909; banned by British; argued it was a planned national uprising with both Hindu-Muslim unity; became the dominant nationalist interpretation |
| R.C. Majumdar | "Neither first, nor national, nor war of independence" | Argued it was not the first (earlier revolts existed), not national (limited to parts of north India), and not a war of independence (rebels had no concept of modern nation-state); provided a balanced academic critique |
| S.B. Chaudhuri | "Civil rebellion" | Emphasized the civilian participation alongside military mutiny; argued it was a broader social upheaval involving peasants, artisans, and dispossessed rulers — not just sepoys |
| Karl Marx | "National revolt" | Wrote articles in the New York Daily Tribune; called it a national revolt against British colonialism; analysed it through the lens of class struggle and anti-colonial resistance; one of the earliest international voices to give it political significance |
| Benjamin Disraeli | "National revolt" | Conservative MP (later Prime Minister); argued in the British Parliament that it was not a mere military mutiny but a national revolt; one of the few British voices to acknowledge its wider character |
| Jawaharlal Nehru | "Essentially a feudal outbreak" | In 'Discovery of India', acknowledged its importance but argued it was led by feudal elements (kings, nawabs, zamindars) rather than modern nationalist forces; said it lacked a progressive vision for India's future |
Quick Revision — UPSC Focus
→ Date of revolt: May 10, 1857 (Meerut)
→ First rebel: Mangal Pandey (March 29, 1857, Barrackpore)
→ Immediate cause: Enfield P-53 rifle greased cartridges (cow + pig fat)
→ Symbolic emperor: Bahadur Shah Zafar II
→ Who annexed Jhansi: Lord Dalhousie (Doctrine of Lapse)
→ Who praised Rani Lakshmibai: British General Hugh Rose
→ Tantia Tope was: Nana Saheb's general; caught via betrayal
→ Bihari leader: Kunwar Singh (70+ year old Rajput)
→ V.D. Savarkar's book: "1857: The Indian War of Independence" (1909)
→ Result: Government of India Act 1858 → Crown Rule → Queen Victoria "Empress of India" (1876)
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