| Emperor | Reign | Key Achievements & Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Babur (Zahir-ud-din Muhammad) | 1526–1530 | Founded Mughal Empire; descendant of Timur (paternal) and Genghis Khan (maternal); First Battle of Panipat (1526) — defeated Ibrahim Lodi using gunpowder and artillery ('tulugma' flanking tactics); Battle of Khanwa (1527) defeated Rajput Rana Sanga; Battle of Ghaghra (1529) defeated Afghan-Sultanate combine; wrote autobiography Baburnama (Tuzuk-i-Baburi) in Chagatai Turkic — translated to Persian, English; called 'Father of the Mughals' |
| Humayun (Nasir-ud-din) | 1530–1540, 1555–1556 | Lost empire to Sher Shah Suri (Battle of Chausa 1539, Battle of Kanauj/Bilgram 1540); spent 15 years in exile (Persia — Shah Tahmasp helped regain throne); regained Delhi (1555); died falling from library stairs; his commander Bairam Khan secured succession for Akbar; tomb in Delhi — first great Mughal monument; built by his widow Bega Begum (Haji Begum) |
| Akbar (Jalal-ud-din) | 1556–1605 | Greatest Mughal emperor; Battle of Panipat II (1556) — defeated Hemu; Regent Bairam Khan (1556–1560); Expanded empire across entire subcontinent; Religious policy: Din-i-Ilahi (1582) — syncretic religion; abolished Jizya (1564); Ibadat Khana (House of Worship — inter-religious debates); married Jodha Bai (Rajput princess); Mansabdari system introduced; Revenue system: Ain-i-Dahsala (10-year average) by Todar Mal; Nine Gems (Navratnas): Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Todar Mal, Man Singh, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Tansen, Fakir Aziao-Din, Mullah Do Piaza; wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama (Abul Fazl) |
| Jahangir (Nur-ud-din) | 1605–1627 | Son of Akbar; married Mehr-un-Nisa (Nur Jahan — real power); known for justice: 'Chain of Justice' (gold chain with bells outside palace); English Captain William Hawkins and diplomat Sir Thomas Roe visited; began Mughal portrait painting tradition; built Shalimar Bagh (Kashmir); Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah (Nur Jahan's father — first marble Mughal tomb — 'Baby Taj') |
| Shah Jahan (Shihab-ud-din) | 1628–1658 | Golden age of Mughal architecture; Taj Mahal (1632–1653) — built for wife Mumtaz Mahal; Red Fort (Delhi), Jama Masjid, Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus); Mughal painting reached peak; also called 'Engineer King'; Deccani campaign; spent last 8 years imprisoned in Agra fort by son Aurangzeb; could see Taj Mahal from his prison window |
| Aurangzeb (Muhiuddin) | 1658–1707 | Longest-reigning Mughal; extremely devout Sunni Muslim; reimposed Jizya (1679), banned music in court, destroyed some Hindu temples (Kashi Vishwanath, Mathura Krishna temple); Deccan campaigns — added Bijapur and Golconda (1687) but bled empire dry; Maratha guerrilla warfare under Shivaji and later Maratha leaders drained Mughal strength; also banned tobacco, drinking; wrote autobiographical letters (Ruqaat-i-Alamgiri); died 1707 at age 88; empire crumbled rapidly after his death |
Mughal Empire (1526–1707 AD)
Babur to Aurangzeb | Central Asian Origin · Pan-Indian Rule · 181 Years | UPSC GS Paper I
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📋 Six Great Mughals (1526–1707): Babur → Humayun → Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan → Aurangzeb
Tip: "Big Horses Always Jump So Awkwardly"
The Six Great Mughals — Quick Overview
Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545) — Great Interlude
→ Afghan ruler who defeated Humayun; ruled only 5 years but was perhaps the greatest administrator of medieval India
→ Grand Trunk Road: Rebuilt and extended from Bengal to Kabul; had sarais (rest-houses) every 2 kos; shady trees planted; postal relay system
→ Currency Reform: Introduced rupiya (silver coin) — still the Indian Rupee; dam (copper); fixed weight and fineness
→ Revenue System: Measured all agricultural land; fixed revenue at 1/3 of produce; issued kabuliyat (deed from peasant) and patta (document of land right) — direct settlement with peasants
→ Military Reform: Branding of horses (dagh) and descriptive rolls (chehra) to prevent fraud — Akbar later adopted this
→ Death: Died in an accidental gunpowder explosion at Kalinjar fort (1545); his tomb at Sasaram (Bihar) is a fine example of Afghan architecture
Mansabdari System — Akbar's Administrative Innovation
→ Mansab: Rank (literally 'position/place'): Every officer had two ranks: Zat (personal rank, determined salary) and Sawar (number of horses/cavalrymen to be maintained)
→ Scale: Ranks from 10 to 10,000 (later up to 12,000 for princes); 33 grades in all
→ Mansabdar: The holder of a mansab; could be Hindu or Muslim; merit-based (theoretically); non-hereditary
→ Jagir: Territory assigned to mansabdar to collect revenue (instead of cash salary) — later led to jagirdari crisis
→ Difference from Iqta: Iqta was revenue assignment without fixed rank hierarchy; Mansab was systematic rank with defined obligations
→ Decline: By Aurangzeb's time, too many mansabs awarded, jagir supply declined; led to nobles fighting over scarce jagirs — a major cause of Mughal decline
Akbar's Religious Policy & Din-i-Ilahi
| Policy / Institution | Details |
|---|---|
| Ibadat Khana (1575) | House of Worship — Akbar invited scholars of all religions (Sunni ulema, Shia scholars, Hindu Brahmins, Jain sadhus, Parsis, Portuguese Jesuits/Christians) for debates every Thursday evening; later opened to all religions (initially only Muslims) |
| Mazhar (1579) | Infallibility Decree — Akbar declared himself arbiter of religious disputes among Muslims; if mujtahids (scholars) disagreed, Akbar's decision was final; weakened ulema's power |
| Abolition of Jizya (1564) | Abolished tax on non-Muslims — radical step; was reimposed by Aurangzeb (1679) |
| Din-i-Ilahi (1582) | 'Divine Faith' or 'God's Religion' — syncretic faith combining elements of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism; emphasized monotheism; Akbar was the spiritual guide; only ~18 courtiers formally accepted; NOT a religion for masses; abolished after Akbar's death; Birbal was the only Hindu to formally accept |
| Sulh-i-kul | 'Peace with all' — administrative principle of tolerance; no discrimination based on religion in appointments or governance |
| Matrimonial Alliances | Married Rajput princesses (Harkha Bai / Jodha Bai of Amer; others from Bikaner, Jaisalmer); their fathers/brothers given high mansabs — Rajput-Mughal alliance strengthened empire |
Mughal Architecture — Key Monuments
| Monument | Emperor | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Humayun's Tomb, Delhi | Humayun (built by widow Bega Begum) | First great Mughal garden tomb; inspiration for Taj Mahal; Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas; double dome; UNESCO World Heritage Site |
| Fatehpur Sikri (Agra) | Akbar | New capital (1571–1585) built to honour Sufi saint Salim Chishti; red sandstone; blend of Hindu-Islamic styles; Buland Darwaza (Victory Gate — 54m) — commemorates Gujarat conquest; Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-Khas, Panch Mahal (5-storey columnar building); abandoned due to water shortage (1585) |
| Agra Fort (Red Fort, Agra) | Akbar (rebuilt) | Red sandstone; palaces within include Shah Jahan's Pearl Mosque; Shah Jahan's octagonal tower — where he was imprisoned; UNESCO WHS |
| Taj Mahal, Agra | Shah Jahan | 1632–1653; built as tomb for Mumtaz Mahal; ~20,000 workers; architect Ustad Ahmad Lahori; pure white Makrana marble; pietra dura (inlay work with precious stones); 4 minarets; Charbagh (4-quadrant garden); UNESCO WHS; 'teardrop on the face of eternity' (Tagore) |
| Red Fort (Lal Qila), Delhi | Shah Jahan | 1638–1648; built when capital shifted from Agra to Delhi (Shahjahanabad); red sandstone outer walls; marble palaces inside (Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas with Peacock Throne); 'Lahore Gate'; UNESCO WHS; PM gives Independence Day speech from here |
| Jama Masjid, Delhi | Shah Jahan | Largest mosque in India; built 1650–1656; 25,000 worshippers; red sandstone and white marble; 3 domes; 2 minarets; 11-arched facade |
Decline of the Mughal Empire
Causes of Mughal Decline (post-1707):
→ War of Succession: Aurangzeb's prolonged absence in Deccan allowed nobles to become semi-independent; no clear succession procedure led to civil wars after every emperor's death
→ Jagirdari Crisis: Number of mansabdars grew but jagir land didn't — fierce competition ruined administrative stability
→ Deccan Drain: 27-year Deccan campaign (1680–1707) exhausted treasury and manpower; Maratha guerrilla warfare (Shivaji, then Maratha confederacy) could not be permanently suppressed
→ Rise of Regional Powers: Hyderabad, Bengal, Awadh became practically independent; Marathas, Rajputs, Sikhs defied central authority
→ Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): Sacked Delhi; took Peacock Throne and Kohinoor diamond; brutally killed 30,000 Delhi residents; massive blow to prestige
→ Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748–1761): Invaded India 7 times; defeated Marathas at Third Battle of Panipat (1761)
→ British Rise: Plassey (1757), Buxar (1764) established British supremacy; last Mughal Bahadur Shah II (Zafar) exiled to Rangoon after 1857 revolt
Later Mughals & Invasions (1707–1857)
| Emperor | Reign | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Bahadur Shah I | 1707–1712 | Tried to reconcile with Maratha, Rajput, Sikh chiefs; relative peace; called 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' (heedless king) by Khafi Khan |
| Jahandar Shah | 1712–1713 | Puppet of Zulfiqar Khan; deposed after barely one year |
| Muhammad Shah 'Rangila' | 1719–1748 | Loved arts and music; Nadir Shah of Persia invaded (1739) — looted Delhi, took Peacock Throne and Kohinoor diamond; Marathas gained power during his reign |
| Ahmad Shah Bahadur | 1748–1754 | Puppet ruler; empire crumbling rapidly |
| Alamgir II | 1754–1759 | Killed by his own vizier Imad-ul-Mulk |
| Shah Alam II | 1759–1806 | Most tragic later Mughal; blinded by Rohilla chief Ghulam Qadir; became British pensioner after Battle of Buxar (1764); British collected revenue from 1765 (Diwani rights) |
| Akbar Shah II | 1806–1837 | Conferred title 'Raja' on Ram Mohan Roy; virtually powerless under British control |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar II | 1837–1857 | Last Mughal emperor; symbol of 1857 revolt; poet; exiled to Rangoon after revolt; died 1862 |
Mughal Paintings & Culture
→ Mughal Miniature Painting: Persian + Indian styles blended; Humayun brought Persian painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad from Persia
→ Akbar' Court: Daswant and Basawan — greatest Indian painters of the era; illustrated manuscripts: Hamzanama (~1400 paintings), Akbarnama, Razmnama (Mahabharata translated into Persian)
→ Jahangir: Greatest patron of painting among Mughals; naturalistic studies of birds, animals, flowers; painters: Mansur ('Nadir-ul-Asr' — Wonder of the Age), Abul Hasan ('Nadir-uz-Zaman' — Wonder of the Time)
→ Shah Jahan: Emphasis on portraits and court scenes; calligraphy flourished; lavish use of gold in paintings
→ Music — Tansen: One of Akbar's Navratnas; greatest Indian musician; created several ragas (Miyan ki Todi, Miyan ki Malhar, Darbari Kanada); Dhrupad style; called 'Father of Hindustani Music'; tomb at Gwalior
Quick Revision — UPSC Facts
→ First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi → Mughal Empire founded
→ Second Battle of Panipat (1556): Akbar (Bairam Khan) vs Hemu → Mughal rule restored
→ Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Marathas vs Ahmad Shah Abdali → Maratha decline
→ Baburnama: First autobiography in Islamic literature; written in Chagatai Turkic
→ Ain-i-Akbari + Akbarnama: Written by Abul Fazl (court historian of Akbar)
→ Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri: Jahangir's memoirs
→ Navratnas of Akbar: Abul Fazl, Faizi, Birbal, Todar Mal, Man Singh, Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khana, Tansen, Fakir Aziao-Din, Mullah Do Piaza
→ Grand Trunk Road: Sher Shah Suri (rebuilt from Sonargaon, Bengal to Peshawar)
→ Rupee coin: Introduced by Sher Shah Suri (adopted by Akbar and British India)
→ Kohinoor Diamond: Taken by Nadir Shah (1739) from Shah Jahan's Peacock Throne
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