| Ruler | Reign | Key Contributions / Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Qutb-ud-din Aibak | 1206–1210 AD | Founded the Sultanate; slave of Muhammad Ghori; built Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (first mosque in India) and began Qutb Minar (Delhi); died playing chaugan (polo); capital Lahore |
| Shams-ud-din Iltutmish | 1211–1236 AD | Real consolidator; organised an exclusive group of 40 nobles (The Forty/Turkan-i-Chahalgani); introduced Iqta system; first ruler to issue pure Arabic coinage (silver 'tanka' and copper 'jital'); completed Qutb Minar; received investiture from Khalifa of Baghdad — legitimised rule; kept Mongols at bay |
| Raziya Sultana | 1236–1240 AD | First and only female sultan of Delhi; daughter of Iltutmish (preferred her over sons — says Minhaj-i-Siraj); gave up purdah; wore male attire; appointed Altunia (governor of Bhatinda) who later married her; overthrown by The Forty nobles; killed near Kaithal (Haryana) |
| Balban (Ghiyas-ud-din Balban) | 1266–1287 AD | Strongest post-Iltutmish ruler; destroyed power of The Forty with iron fist; introduced Persian court etiquette (sijda — prostration before king; paibos — kissing king's feet); created strong centralised rule; established the 'Theory of Kingship' (Zil-i-Ilahi — shadow of God); court historian Amir Khusrau (though Khusrau's main career was under Khilji and Tughlaq) |
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD)
Five Dynasties · Indo-Islamic State · 320 Years of Rule | UPSC GS Paper I — Medieval History
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📋 Five Dynasties — Quick Mnemonic: "Sikh Taught Soldiers Last Lesson"
Slave (Mamluk) → Khilji → Tughlaq → Sayyid → Lodi (1206–1290 → 1290–1320 → 1320–1414 → 1414–1451 → 1451–1526)
1. Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty — 1206–1290 AD
2. Khilji Dynasty — 1290–1320 AD
| Ruler | Reign | Key Contributions |
|---|---|---|
| Jalal-ud-din Khilji | 1290–1296 AD | Founded Khilji dynasty; elderly, kindly ruler; killed by his own nephew Alauddin |
| Alauddin Khilji | 1296–1316 AD | Greatest Khilji ruler; largest territorial expansion of Sultanate; South India campaigns by general Malik Kafur (1308–1310); Mongol invasions repelled (6 times); Market Reforms — 4 markets (grain, cattle/cloth, horses, cattle for farming), price control, espionage network; Revenue reforms — direct payment of revenue, abolished tax-free grants of nobles; Administrative — theory of kingship separate from religion; court historian Amir Khusrau; built Alai Darwaza (south gateway of Qutb Minar complex) — finest example of early Indo-Islamic architecture |
| Malik Kafur | General, not ruler | Slave-general of Alauddin; led successful South India campaigns (1306–1316); brought enormous wealth from Hoysalas, Pandyas, Kakatiyas; later became de facto ruler briefly |
| Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah | 1316–1320 AD | Last Khilji; murdered by Khusrau Khan (Hindu convert general); Khusrau toppled by Ghazi Malik (Tughlaq) |
3. Tughlaq Dynasty — 1320–1414 AD
| Ruler | Reign | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq | 1320–1325 | Founded dynasty; built Tughlaqabad fort (Delhi) — first of three Delhi fortified cities he built; killed by collapse of pavilion (possibly assassinated by son Jauna) |
| Muhammad bin Tughlaq (Jauna Khan) | 1325–1351 | Most controversial sultan — highly educated (14 languages, philosophy, logic, astronomy, medicine) yet many policies failed: (1) Transfer of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devagiri) — to better control Deccan — forced entire population to move, many died, reversed later; (2) Token currency — copper coins instead of silver; people counterfeited, sultan withdrew scheme causing treasury loss; (3) Khurasan expedition — planned to conquer Khurasan (Iran-Afghanistan) but cancelled; (4) Increased taxes in Doab during famine; people rebelled; Ibn Batuta (Moroccan traveller) was his Chief Qadi and describes him in Rihla |
| Firuz Shah Tughlaq | 1351–1388 | Reformer sultan; repaired 30 dams, 100+ bridges, 150 wells; 5 canals; founded Firozabad, Fatehabad, Hisar, Jaunpur; abolished 24 harsh taxes; encouraged learning — translated Sanskrit works to Persian; moved two Ashoka pillars from outside Delhi into city; patron of Amir Khusrau's successor poets; Jizya reimposed on Brahmins too; failed military expeditions; empire began fragmenting under him |
| Timur Invasion (1398) | ExternalEvent | Timur (Tamerlane) from Samarkand invaded; sacked Delhi; killed 100,000 prisoners in one day; took away artisans and wealth; Delhi desolate for years; Tughlaq power broken |
4. Sayyid & Lodi Dynasties — 1414–1526 AD
Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451):
→ Founded by Khizr Khan (Timur's governor of Punjab); claimed descent from Prophet — hence "Sayyid"
→ Weak dynasty; empire shrunk to just Delhi and surroundings; last ruler Alam Shah voluntarily surrendered throne to Bahlol Lodi
Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526) — Last Afghan rulers of Delhi:
→ Bahlol Lodi (1451–1489): Founded; conquered Jaunpur; first Afghan to sit on Delhi throne
→ Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Greatest Lodi sultan; intelligent, capable administrator; founded Agra (1504) as second capital; introduced Gaz-i-Sikandari (unit of measurement); patron of music and learning; but very intolerant toward Hindus
→ Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Last Delhi Sultan; harsh, unpopular with nobles; Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Rana Sanga invited Babur to invade; Ibrahim killed at First Battle of Panipat (1526) by Babur
Administration — Iqta System & Other Features
| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Iqta System | Key administrative institution of Sultanate; Iqta = a grant of revenue from a territory to a noble/soldier (called muqti or wali) in lieu of salary; NOT a permanent land grant (unlike jagir of Mughals); muqti must maintain army and send excess revenue to sultan; introduced by Iltutmish; became basis of Mughal Jagirdari later |
| Central Government | Sultan was supreme; 4 main ministers: Wazir (prime minister, head of finance), Ariz-i-Mumalik (head of army), Diwan-i-Insha (dispatch department), Sadr-us-Sadr (religious affairs/charity grants — also double as Qazi-ul-Quzat) |
| Provincial Govt | Sultanate divided into provinces (Iqtas); governor called Muqti or Wali; districts called Shiqq; Shiqqdars were district officers |
| Revenue System | Kharaj (land tax — 1/3 to 1/2 of produce); Zakat (2.5% — religious tax on Muslims); Khumsa (1/5 of war booty); Jizya (tax on non-Muslims); Alauddin Khilji extended Kharaj to 50% of produce |
| Jizya | Tax on non-Muslims (dhimmis) in lieu of military service; controversial — collected throughout Sultanate; abolished by Akbar; reimposed by Aurangzeb |
| Sultans as Caliphs | Sultnate rulers in theory subordinate to Khalifa of Baghdad; after Mongols killed Baghdad Khalifa (1258), Delhi sultans sought recognition from other Arab Khalifas or simply declared themselves independent |
Delhi Sultanate Art & Architecture
Features of Sultanate Architecture (Indo-Islamic Style):
→ Use of arch (true arch) and dome — introduced to India by Turks; replaced post-and-lintel construction
→ Calligraphy and geometric designs on walls (no human figures — Islamic tradition); arabesque patterns
→ Local Hindu craftsmen adapted Indian decorative elements (lotus, bell, chain, kirtimukha) to Islamic structures
→ Rubble masonry with lime mortar (vs. earlier dry stone construction)
Key Monuments:
→ Qutb Minar (Delhi): Started by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish; 72.5m tall; 5 storeys; dedicated to Sufi saint Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki; UNESCO World Heritage Site
→ Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque: First mosque in India; used material from demolished Hindu/Jain temples (pillars, decorative stones visible); Delhi
→ Alai Darwaza: Alauddin Khilji; 1311 AD; south gateway of Qutb complex; finest Sultanate architecture — true arch, red sandstone + white marble inlay
→ Tomb of Iltutmish: First Islamic tomb in India; rubble masonry; ornate calligraphy interior
→ Tughlaqabad Fort: Massive fortified city near Delhi; built by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq
→ Jamat Khana Mosque (Delhi): First mosque with iwans (vaulted halls) on three sides — new Indo-Islamic feature
Economy & Society under the Sultanate
Agriculture & Revenue:
→ Kharaj (land tax) was the primary source of state revenue; ranged from 1/5 to 1/2 of produce depending on the ruler
→ Irrigation improved via Persian wheels (araghatta), dams, and canals — Firuz Tughlaq built 5 major canals
Urbanization:
→ Delhi became one of the world's largest cities during the 14th century
→ New cities founded — Tughlaqabad, Firozabad, Siri, Jahanpanah — all near Delhi
→ Markets and bazaars flourished; Alauddin Khilji established regulated markets with strict price controls
Trade:
→ Overland trade via Silk Road continued with Central Asia and China
→ Seaborne trade with Arabia, China, and Southeast Asia through ports like Cambay and Calicut
→ Major commodities: textiles, spices, horses, and slaves
Coins & Currency:
→ Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and copper jital — first standardised Sultanate coinage
→ Muhammad bin Tughlaq's failed token currency experiment — issued copper coins at par with silver; mass counterfeiting forced withdrawal
→ Firuz Shah Tughlaq issued coins bearing his portrait
Society & Social Groups:
→ New social groups emerged — Ulema (religious scholars), Sufis, Amirs (nobles)
→ Hindu zamindars continued to function at the local level, collecting revenue and maintaining order
→ New craft traditions introduced — paper-making came to India; Indo-Islamic culture emerged blending Hindu and Muslim traditions
Slavery:
→ Extensive slave system existed throughout the Sultanate period
→ Military slaves (mamluks) rose to become sultans — the entire first dynasty was of slave origin
→ Slave markets were common in Delhi and other major cities
Language & Literature:
→ Persian became the official court and administrative language
→ Growth of Hindavi/Hindustani as common spoken language bridging communities
→ Amir Khusrau pioneered Hindi literature and composed in both Persian and Hindavi
Key Scholars & Literary Figures
| Scholar / Figure | Period | Contributions & Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Amir Khusrau | 1253–1325 | "Parrot of India" (Tuti-e-Hind); served 7 sultans from Balban to Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq; invented khayal, qawwali, and tarana music forms; pioneered ghazal in India; wrote in Persian and Hindavi; disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya; major works: Khazain-ul-Futuh (history of Alauddin Khilji), Tughlaqnama, Nuh Sipihr |
| Minhaj-i-Siraj | 13th century | Author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri — a major history of the Delhi Sultanate dedicated to Sultan Nasir-ud-din; wrote about Razia Sultana and early Mamluk rulers |
| Ziauddin Barani | 1285–1357 | Author of Tarikh-i-Firuzshahi — history of the Sultanate from Balban to Firuz Shah Tughlaq; important political thinker who wrote Fatwa-i-Jahandari on theory of kingship |
| Ibn Batuta | 1304–1369 | Moroccan traveller; served as Chief Qadi (judge) under Muhammad bin Tughlaq; wrote Rihla (travel account) describing court life, social customs, and Delhi's grandeur; one of the most detailed accounts of Sultanate India |
| Isami | 14th century | Author of Futuh-us-Salatin — history of the Sultanate written in verse (mathnavi); composed at the Bahmani court in the Deccan |
| Firuz Shah Tughlaq | 1351–1388 | Wrote autobiography Futuhat-i-Firuzshahi describing his reforms and achievements; great patron of learning; established madrasas and translated Sanskrit works to Persian |
Quick Revision — UPSC Focus
→ First female ruler of Delhi: Razia Sultana (1236–1240)
→ Silver tanka introduced by: Iltutmish
→ Iqta system introduced by: Iltutmish
→ Token currency introduced by: Muhammad bin Tughlaq (failed experiment)
→ Capital transfer Delhi→Daulatabad: Muhammad bin Tughlaq
→ Alai Darwaza: Alauddin Khilji (finest example early Indo-Islamic arch)
→ Qutb Minar begun by: Aibak; completed by Iltutmish
→ Timur invasaion: 1398 AD; wiped out Tughlaq power
→ Founded Agra: Sikandar Lodi (1504)
→ First Battle of Panipat: 1526; Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi; ended Delhi Sultanate
→ Ibn Batuta: Moroccan traveller; visited India under Muhammad bin Tughlaq; wrote Rihla
→ Amir Khusrau: Born 1253; most important poet of Sultanate period; invented Khayal music, Qawwali; poet in Persian & Hindi; "Parrot of India"; served 7 sultans
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