→ Seals: Steatite (soapstone) seals — most distinctive; ~2000+ found; Unicorn, Bull, Pashupati seal (proto-Shiva seated among animals) — religious or commercial purpose; still undeciphered script
→ Dancing Girl (Mohenjodaro): Bronze figurine of a dancing girl; casting by lost-wax (cire perdue) technique; earliest example of lost-wax casting in India
→ Bust of Priest-King (Mohenjodaro): Steatite sculpture; man wearing trefoil-patterned robe; possibly high official or priest
→ Bronze Bull (Harappa): Evidence of technical mastery in metal casting
→ Beads & Jewelry: Faience, carnelian, lapis lazuli, gold beads — evidence of long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and Central Asia
→ Pottery: Red ware with black paintings; geometric and floral motifs; wheel-made
Ancient Indian Art & Architecture
Indus Valley to Gupta Period (~3000 BC – 700 AD) | UPSC GS Paper I — Art & Culture
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📌 UPSC Exam Focus
Art & Architecture is asked in both Prelims and Mains (GS I). Focus on: Stupa anatomy, Pillars vs. Columns, Nagara vs. Dravidian vs. Vesara distinctions, Cave temple chronology, Specific UNESCO sites.
Indus Valley / Harappan Art (3300–1300 BC)
Mauryan Art & Architecture (321–185 BC)
Ashoka's Pillars — Most Important UPSC Topic
| Pillar | Location | Notable Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Sarnath Pillar | Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh | 4 lions back-to-back on abacus with wheel (chakra), elephant, bull, horse — adopted as National Emblem of India; 'Satyameva Jayate' from Mundaka Upanishad below |
| Lauriya Nandangarh Pillar | Bihar | Single lion capital; one of the best preserved; 32 ft tall |
| Delhi-Meerut Pillar | Delhi (moved from Meerut by Firuz Shah Tughlaq) | Has Ashoka's 6 Major Rock Edicts and Queen's Edict |
| Sanchi Pillar | Madhya Pradesh | Near the Great Stupa; Lion capital |
| Allahabad Pillar | Prayagraj, UP | Has Ashoka's edicts PLUS Samudragupta's Prayag Prashasti (Harishena) engraved on it later |
Pillar Facts:
→ Made from single pieces of chunar sandstone; polished to mirror finish using secret technique (possibly special paste)
→ ~50 ft high; weighing ~50 tonnes; transported hundreds of kilometers
→ Capital = top section; Bell-shaped (inverted lotus) base + Abacus with animals + Animal capital
Stupas — Buddhist Burial Mounds
Parts of a Stupa:
→ Anda: Hemispherical dome (representing the universe/cosmos)
→ Harmika: Square railing at top (symbolizes heaven's abode)
→ Yasti/Chattra: Central mast/umbrella — symbol of the Buddha
→ Medhi: Circular drum/terrace around the anda for circumambulation (pradakshina)
→ Torana: Beautifully carved gateways (4 in number — cardinal directions); finest at Sanchi
→ Vedika: Railing surrounding the stupa; separate and non-structural
Key Stupas:
→ Sanchi Stupa: MP; built by Ashoka over Buddha's relics; enlarged later; Torana carvings finest example of early Buddhist art; UNESCO World Heritage Site
→ Bharhut Stupa: MP; 2nd century BC; railing and gateways with Jataka stories carved in relief; simpler and earlier than Sanchi
→ Amravati Stupa: Andhra Pradesh; 2nd–3rd century AD; Satavahana patronage; marble sculptures; standing Buddha appears (different from earlier aniconic style)
→ Dhamekh Stupa (Sarnath): UP; 5th century AD; marks spot where Buddha gave first sermon; cylindrical shape
Mauryan Caves & Palace
→ Barabar Caves: Bihar; oldest rock-cut caves in India; gifted by Ashoka to Ajivika monks; interior polished like glass
→ Pataliputra Palace: Megasthenes described it as magnificent; wooden pillars with stone bases; influenced by Persian (Achaemenid) architecture
→ Didarganj Yakshi: Chunar sandstone; realistic female figure; finest example of Mauryan sculpture; held fly-whisk; possibly 3rd–2nd century BC
Post-Mauryan Buddhist Art (185 BC – 300 AD)
Aniconic vs. Iconic Representation of Buddha:
→ Aniconic (Early Buddhist Art): Buddha NOT depicted in human form; represented by symbols: Footprints (Paduka), Wheel (Dharma Chakra), Throne (empty), Bodhi tree (Enlightenment), Parasol, etc. — seen at Sanchi, Bharhut
→ Iconic (Later): Buddha shown in human form; began ~1st century AD
Two Schools of Buddhist Sculpture:
| Feature | Gandhara School | Mathura School |
|---|---|---|
| Period | 1st–5th century AD | 1st–5th century AD |
| Location | Gandhara region (Afghanistan/Pakistan, Peshawar-Taxila area) | Mathura, Uttar Pradesh |
| Patronage | Kushana kings (especially Kanishka) | Kushana kings + local merchants; indigenous |
| Material | Grey/Blue schist (stone); some stucco | Spotted red sandstone of Sikri (Mathura) |
| Influence | Greco-Roman (Hellenistic) features | Indigenous Indian tradition |
| Buddha's Face | Wavy hair, muscular, Greek-god-like facial features, thick robe with folds (like Roman toga) | Round face, shaved/short curly hair, thin transparent robe; indigenous Indian |
| Background | Greco-Bactrian influence via Alexander-Seleucid connection; Western classical art | Purely Indian — continuation of Yaksha/Yakshini tradition |
| Famous Works | Fasting Buddha (thin/emaciated — meditation); numerous Bodhisattva figures | Seated Buddha in dhyanamudra; standing Buddha; many Jain Tirthankaras too |
Amaravati School: 2nd century BC – 3rd century AD; Andhra Pradesh; White marble; most developed narrative Buddhist art; shows Buddha in human form; influence spread to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia
Cave Temples — Ajanta & Ellora
| Feature | Ajanta | Ellora |
|---|---|---|
| Location | Aurangabad dist., Maharashtra | Aurangabad dist., Maharashtra (~100km from Ajanta) |
| Number of Caves | 29 caves | 34 caves |
| Religions | Buddhist only | Buddhist (1–12) + Hindu (13–29) + Jain (30–34) |
| Period | 2nd century BC – 7th century AD | 600–1000 AD |
| Type | Rock-cut; Chaityas (prayer halls) + Viharas (monasteries) | Rock-cut + some structural; Chaityas, Viharas, temples |
| Famous for | Magnificent paintings (frescoes) using mineral/vegetable pigments on dry walls — Buddhist Jataka stories; also some sculptures | Sculptures; Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) — largest monolithic structure carved by Rashtrakuta Krishna I |
| Best Paintings | Cave 1 (Bodhisattva Padmapani — holding lotus; Bodhisattva Vajrapani), Cave 2, Cave 16, Cave 17 — narrative scenes of Jataka stories | Not primarily known for painting; Cave 32 has some Jain paintings |
| Patronage | Satavahanas (early), Vakatakas (most of later caves — King Harisena), Chalukyas | Rashtrakutas (Kailasa), Chalukyas, local rulers — multiple patrons over centuries |
| UNESCO | World Heritage Site since 1983 | World Heritage Site since 1983 |
Temple Architecture — Nagara, Dravidian & Vesara Styles
| Feature | Nagara Style (North Indian) | Dravidian Style (South Indian) | Vesara Style (Mixed) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Region | North India (Himalayas to Vindhyas) | South India (below Krishna River) | Deccan / mixed region |
| Tower (main) | Shikhara — curvilinear/beehive shaped; grows taller in stages | Vimana — pyramidal tower; multiple horizontal tiers | Mix of both |
| Gateway | No prominent gopura; entrance gateway simple | Gopuram — very tall ornate gateway tower; later becomes tallest element | Modest gates |
| Sanctum | Square garbhagriha (womb chamber) | Square garbhagriha; often square or apsidal | Garbhagriha |
| Water Tank | Not mandatory | Large temple tank (pushkarini) common | May have tank |
| Examples | Kandariya Mahadeva (Khajuraho), Lingaraj (Bhubaneswar), Brihadesvara Tanjore is Dravidian not Nagara; Sun Temple Konark | Brihadesvara Temple (Thanjavur), Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram), Kailasanatha (Kanchipuram), Meenakshi (Madurai) | Hoysalesvara (Halebid), Hoysala temples (Karnataka) |
| Sub-types | Rekha Prasada (main tower), Phamsana (flat-topped), Valabhi (barrel-shaped roof) | Kuta (square top), Shala (rectangular/barrel), Vesara (apsidal) | — |
Gupta Art — The Classical Peak (320–550 AD)
Gupta Period is called the "Classical Age of Indian Art" — here aesthetics reached their highest refinement.
→ Sculpture: Buddha images achieved perfect balance — spirituality with physical beauty; thin transparent robe; peaceful expression; ushnisha (cranial protuberance); urna (spot between eyebrows); elongated earlobes
→ Mathura School (Gupta period): Red sandstone; thin, clinging drapery; serene facial expression — peak example: Sarnath Buddha
→ Sarnath School (Gupta): Cream-colored Chunar sandstone; figures become more refined, Indian; thin robe with no folds visible; most refined Indian Buddhist sculpture
→ Temple Building: First structural Hindu temples built; early examples: Deogarh (Dashavatara temple — UP), Tigawa (MP), Sanchi temple 17
→ Metal Casting: Iron Pillar of Delhi (~4th century AD) — 1600 years old, not rusted; testament to Gupta metallurgy; stands in Qutub complex
→ Paintings: Later Ajanta caves (Vakataka period contemporaneous with Gupta) show refined Gupta art style
Rock-Cut Architecture of India
| Site | Location | Key Details |
|---|---|---|
| Barabar Caves | Bihar | Oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India; Mauryan period; donated by Ashoka to Ajivika monks; Lomas Rishi cave has a distinctive horseshoe-shaped entrance with carved elephant frieze |
| Ajanta Caves | Maharashtra | 29 caves; Buddhist; 2nd century BC to 6th century AD; world-famous for murals/paintings — Bodhisattva Padmapani and Vajrapani frescoes; Gupta-period paintings are the most magnificent; UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983) |
| Ellora Caves | Maharashtra | 34 caves; Buddhist + Hindu + Jain — represents religious harmony; Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) — largest monolithic rock excavation in the world; carved from top to bottom out of a single rock; Rashtrakuta period (Krishna I); UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983) |
| Elephanta Caves | Mumbai (island) | Rock-cut temples dedicated to Shiva; famous Trimurti sculpture (three-headed Shiva — Creator, Preserver, Destroyer) ~18 ft high; UNESCO World Heritage Site; attributed to Rashtrakuta / Chalukya period |
| Udayagiri Caves | Odisha | Jain rock-cut caves; contains the famous Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela (Chedi dynasty); dates to ~2nd century BC; 18 caves in total |
Temple Architecture Styles — Nagara, Dravidian & Vesara
| Feature | Nagara Style (North India) | Dravidian Style (South India) | Vesara Style (Deccan) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tower | Curvilinear shikhara (beehive-shaped tower rising upward) | Pyramidal vimana (tower with horizontal tiers) | Hybrid — elements of both shikhara and vimana |
| Entrance | No prominent gopuram; simple entrance gateways | Tall, ornate gopurams (entrance gateway towers); often taller than main tower | Modest entrance gateways |
| Boundary | No boundary walls around temple complex | Surrounded by boundary walls (prakara) enclosing the complex | May or may not have walls |
| Sanctum | Square garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) + mandapa (hall) | Square garbhagriha with ambulatory path; mandapa present | Garbhagriha with hall |
| Water Tank | Not mandatory | Large water tank (pushkarini) common within complex | May have tank |
| Sub-styles | Rekha-Prasada (curvilinear main tower), Phamsana (flat-topped subsidiary), Valabhi (barrel-shaped roof) | Kuta (square roof), Shala (barrel-shaped), Vesara (apsidal) | Chalukyan style — blended features |
| Key Examples | Kandariya Mahadev Temple (Khajuraho), Sun Temple (Konark), Lingaraja Temple (Bhubaneswar) | Brihadeswara Temple (Thanjavur — Chola dynasty), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai — Pandya/Nayaka period) | Temples at Aihole, Pattadakal, and Badami (Chalukya temples of Karnataka) |
Quick Revision — UPSC Mnemonics
Quick Memory Hooks:
→ Sarnath Lion Capital: 4 lions, 4 animals on abacus (elephant-horse-bull-lion), 24-spoked Dharmachakra — National Emblem
→ Gandhara = Greek Buddha | Mathura = Indian Buddha | Amaravati = Narrative sculptures
→ Stupa Layers (bottom to top): Vedika → Medhi → Anda → Harmika → Yasti/Chattra
→ Ajanta = Paintings | Ellora = Kailasa Temple (sculpture)
→ Nagara = Shikhara (curvilinear) | Dravidian = Vimana (pyramidal) + Gopuram
→ Iron Pillar Delhi: ~98% pure iron; testament to Gupta metallurgy; inscription mentions Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya)
→ Three Ratnas of Kannada Literature: Pampa + Ponna + Ranna (flourished under Rashtrakutas / Chalukyas of Kalyani)
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